208 - Comperative Literature and Translation Studies

⭐ NAME :- Shah Vanshita Ashwinbhai 

⭐ SUBJECT :- English 

⭐ YEAR :- M.A.

⭐ PAPER NAME :- 208 - Competative literature and                                                       Translation studies 

⭐ COLLEGE :- M.N.College 

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ARTICLE - 1

Why Comparative Indian Literature? - Sisir Kumar Das

Sisir Kumar Das:

Sisir Kumar Das (1936–2003) was a renowned Indian scholar, literary historian, critic, playwright, and poet. He is best known for his extensive work in Comparative Literature and his contributions to the study of Indian literary traditions. His scholarship covered a wide range of subjects, including multilingualism, translation studies, literary historiography, and the relationship between Indian and world literature.

Das played a key role in shaping the field of Comparative Indian Literature, emphasizing the need to study Indian literature as a unified yet diverse entity rather than as isolated linguistic traditions. He argued that Indian literature should be analyzed within a comparative framework, taking into account its rich interactions across languages, cultures, and historical periods. His monumental work, A History of Indian Literature, is a landmark contribution that provides a comprehensive overview of Indian literary traditions across different languages and time periods. Das was a strong advocate for moving beyond Eurocentric approaches to comparative literature, encouraging a more inclusive and context-sensitive study of literary traditions. Through his scholarly works, Das has significantly influenced literary criticism and comparative studies in India, making him a central figure in the field of Indian literary historiography.

Introduction:

Scholars have attempted to identify similarities across the diverse literary traditions of India over the past 3,000 years, aiming to find unity in its multilingual and multi religious culture. However, this broad concept of Indian literature has not significantly contributed to a unified critical study. Instead, literary studies in India remain divided into smaller linguistic traditions. Recently, some scholars have introduced the idea of 'comparative Indian literature' to establish a framework for exploring relationships between different literary traditions. However, the term 'comparative' has led to confusion, highlighting the need to clearly define 'Indian literature' and justify the use of this qualifier. Simply grouping together all literature written in Indian languages does not create a meaningful literary category. Instead, Indian literature should be understood as a network of literary connections, and any study of it must embrace this diversity to gain a deeper understanding.

Article Summary

The author examines the connection between comparative literature and comparative Indian literature, questioning whether Indian literature should be studied through a comparative lens and whether this approach limits the researcher. They also explore why a scholar might choose to focus on Indian literature instead of comparative literature, which offers a broader scope. Simply put, the author is analyzing the benefits and drawbacks of studying Indian literature comparatively and whether this method effectively helps in understanding literary facts.

Comparative literature explores the similarities and differences between literary works from various languages and regions. Its main aim is to view all literature as part of a larger, interconnected whole. To achieve this, scholars of comparative literature, or comparatists, examine multiple literary traditions from around the world. However, since studying all literature at once is challenging, they focus on specific areas. Indian literature is one such area of study, but it is essential to recognize that it represents only a small part of the broader field of comparative literature.

Goethe, a renowned poet, introduced the concept of "Weltliteratur" or world literature, which emphasizes uniting great literary works from all languages and civilizations. He believed that the era of national literature had ended and that the focus should shift toward significant literary works from across the world. Similarly, early scholars of Indian literature advocated for studying the finest works from various Indian languages that had endured over time.

A comparatist is a scholar who studies literature from different countries and languages, focusing not on identifying the best works but on understanding the connections between national literatures—their similarities and differences. Their aim is to develop a broad understanding of human literary activity and contribute to universal poetics. The goal of a comparatist is to explore world literature, which encompasses all literary traditions rather than just the most celebrated works. Comparative literature serves as their method of analysis, differing from the study of a single literature in terms of scope, perspective, and approach. Ultimately, a comparatist's field of study is as vast as world literature itself, with their strength and challenge lying in their global outlook.

For the past hundred years, Western comparatists have primarily focused on Western literature, often overlooking the existence of other literary traditions. Despite claims of cosmopolitanism, this has led to a narrow perspective in literary studies. However, interactions between Western and Eastern literature have existed since ancient times. European literature has been influenced by Hebrew, Arabic, and Sanskrit traditions, and even Chinese and Japanese literature was available in translation when comparative literature was being established in Europe and America. Yet, Western criticism has been reluctant to fully incorporate non-Western literature into its studies, possibly due to ignorance or prejudice. As a result, comparative literature has remained largely confined to Western traditions. Critic François Jost recognizes this issue, attributing it to Western indifference and lack of awareness of other cultures.

Europe came to know of Hebrew Literature the day it accepted Christianity.

The ‘Panchtantra’ reached Europe through its Arabian and Syrian version before The Renaissance.

Cordova in Spain in the eleventh century was the center for Arabic literature.

By the end of the 18th century, Europe discovered Sanskrit, which brought about a revolution in linguistics.

When comparative literature was established in the universities of Europe and America translation of many works in Chinese and Japanese and of course in Arabic and Persian were available in European languages.

The writer explains that Western literary scholars have focused only on Western literature for a long time, ignoring literature from other parts of the world. This has made their approach narrow-minded. Even though Western and Eastern literature have influenced each other for centuries, Western scholars have been unwilling to study non-Western works, leading to ignorance and bias against other cultures. Critics have pointed out this problem, blaming it on Western scholars’ lack of awareness and interest in other literary traditions.

Western literature has been criticized for being Eurocentric and ignoring other literary traditions. However, Western comparatists focus on European literature more out of practicality than prejudice against Oriental literature. Scholar Ulrich Weisstein hesitated to expand comparative literature to include different civilizations, arguing that doing so might lead to ahistorical comparisons based on speculation. From this perspective, Western scholars are justified in focusing on their own literary traditions. However, if Indian literature is included in comparative literature, it should be treated with the same validity as Western comparative literature. Critics like Henry Remak and Etiemble have advocated for broadening the scope of comparative literature to be more inclusive.

When Europe defined Comparative Literature based on national literatures, it only considered European nation-states, which are mostly monolingual. However, countries like India and the former Soviet Union are multilingual, consisting of multiple nationalities with different languages. This means that neither language, political boundaries, nor culture alone can be the defining criteria for Comparative Literature. Instead, Comparative Literature must be both inter-linguistic (between different languages) and intra-linguistic (within the same language). If we base literature solely on language, we may achieve a certain level of uniformity, but the idea of cultural homogeneity—on which Western comparative literature is built—will collapse. Even if Comparative Literature continues to focus on relationships between national literatures, it must adapt to nations with diverse literary traditions in multiple languages, such as India.

Das argues that Comparative Indian Literature is a valid field within comparative literature, not because Western comparative literature focuses only on Western texts, but because literary studies should avoid narrow-mindedness. Comparative literature should have a solid foundation, as literature is rooted in language and culture while also transcending them. True literary study must remain connected to cultural history; otherwise, it risks becoming superficial. From Western comparatists, we should learn the importance of avoiding shallow or disconnected studies. Comparative Indian Literature is essential because literature must be studied in relation to its people and historical context. This is not about nationalism but about recognizing the deep connection between literature and society. Literature cannot be treated as abstract knowledge without considering the people and the time in which it was created.

The study of only Indian literature might lead to literary patriotism or a narrow, limited perspective, which should be avoided. Indian literature is inherently multilingual, with languages influencing one another and shaping new literary styles, such as Manipravala, and even new languages like Urdu. Writers have often used multiple languages simultaneously or switched between them. Some texts, like Charya songs and Mirabai songs, are claimed by different linguistic communities, while others, like Sanskrit plays, were written in more than one language. Few societies have witnessed such prolonged interaction between languages from different language families as India has.

Given this complexity, Indian literature requires a broad literary perspective. Indian comparatists should not restrict themselves to Indian literature alone. Comparative Indian Literature is not just a necessary approach for studying Indian literature but also enriches the field of comparative literature itself by offering new perspectives. Works like Meghnavadham Kavya, which involves two different civilizations, or the development of tragedy and the novel in India, challenge Indian comparatists to study Indian literature in relation to both ancient Greek and modern European literature. Indian literature is not confined to India alone—it has global connections and influences.

Conclusion:

The discussion on Comparative Indian Literature highlights the need for a broad and inclusive approach to literary studies. While Western comparative literature has historically focused on European traditions, Indian literature, with its rich multilingual and multicultural interactions, offers a unique perspective. The study of Indian literature through a comparative lens not only deepens our understanding of its diverse literary traditions but also contributes to the larger discourse of world literature.

Comparative Indian Literature is not just a subcategory of comparative literature; it is a necessary framework for studying the complex literary relationships within India and beyond. By resisting both Eurocentrism and parochialism, Indian comparatists can provide fresh insights into literary studies. Indian literature, with its deep historical connections to various civilizations, must be studied in relation to global literary traditions. This approach ensures that literary studies remain dynamic, inclusive, and reflective of the true nature of human creativity across cultures.

 

ARTICLE - 2

Comparative Literature in India - Amiya Dev

Introduction to Amiya Dev

Amiya Dev is a renowned scholar in the field of Comparative Literature, known for his contributions to the study of Indian literature within a comparative framework. His work emphasizes the importance of understanding Indian literature as an intern literary process rather than viewing it through the binary of unity versus diversity. He challenges the conventional approach of treating Indian literature as either a single unified entity or as a collection of separate, distinct literatures. Instead, he advocates for a dialectical perspective, where different linguistic and cultural traditions interact dynamically.

Dev's scholarship also engages with global debates in Comparative Literature, drawing insights from various traditions while asserting the need for an indigenous framework for studying Indian literature. He stresses the role of multilingualism, translation, and literary reception in shaping Indian literature, urging scholars to first understand their own literary traditions before applying universal theories. His approach offers a nuanced and evolving perspective on Indian Comparative Literature, making significant contributions to both Indian and global literary studies.

Abstract:

Amiya Dev's article "Comparative Literature in India" explores how we should understand and study literature in India's multi-language environment. He starts with a basic fact: India naturally has many languages and literatures - this isn't something artificially created but has always been the case. This creates an interesting challenge. On one hand, we can't simply call everything "Indian literature" because that oversimplifies the rich diversity that exists. But on the other hand, we also can't treat each language's literature as completely separate because they're all connected in various ways.

Dev examines this situation by looking at two main viewpoints. Some scholars argue for unity, saying all Indian literature is fundamentally connected. Others emphasize diversity, focusing on how each language's literature is unique. Instead of choosing one side, Dev suggests that the relationship between these shared features and differences is what makes India such an important place for studying comparative literature. He looks at how different scholars have approached this issue, including how some modern thinkers worry that pushing for unity might erase important differences between literary traditions.

The most important part of Dev's argument is his suggestion that we should stop thinking about Indian literature as something fixed or unchanging. Instead, he proposes that we should see it as an ongoing process where different literary traditions constantly interact with and influence each other. He emphasizes how important it is to consider where each piece of literature comes from (its location) and how it's received in different parts of India. This way of thinking allows us to appreciate both the connections between different Indian literatures and their unique characteristics. In essence, Dev sees Indian literature as something that's always evolving and being reshaped through these interactions between different languages and literary traditions.

The Fundamental Context

India presents a unique case in world literature due to its extraordinary linguistic diversity. The country recorded 1,652 languages in earlier censuses (1961-71), while the 1981 census documented 221 spoken languages. Among these, 18 languages are officially recognized in the Indian Constitution, and the Sahitya Akademi (National Academy of Letters) recognizes 22 languages for their literary significance. This linguistic multiplicity naturally creates a complex literary landscape where different language literatures have coexisted and evolved over centuries. Some of these literary traditions, like Sanskrit and Tamil, date back to antiquity, while most others have histories spanning approximately 800-900 years. Indian English literature emerged as a relatively recent addition in the 19th century, bringing its own unique characteristics to this diverse literary ecosystem.

Summary:

Amiya Dev's argument challenges the traditional binary approach to Indian literature, which either emphasizes its unity or highlights its diversity. Instead, he proposes a comparative framework that acknowledges the interliterary process—the constant interaction and exchange between different linguistic and literary traditions in India.

He emphasizes a dialectical view of literary introduction, meaning that Indian literature should not be seen as a single, monolithic entity nor as entirely separate linguistic traditions. Rather, it should be understood as a dynamic system where languages and literatures influence each other over time.

With 22 officially recognized languages and literary traditions in India (as per the census and Sahitya Akademi), Dev points out that Indian literature cannot be confined to a single dominant language or perspective. The hegemonic view that privileges certain languages over others must be reconsidered in favor of a more inclusive and comparative literary approach. Through this, Dev presents a broader and more nuanced understanding of comparative literature in the Indian context—one that values both diversity and interconnectedness, rather than forcing a rigid distinction between them.

Amiya Dev explores the complex question of whether Indian literature should be viewed as a singular entity or as multiple distinct literatures. The traditional approach, influenced by both colonial and post-colonial perspectives, has often emphasized a unified Indian literature, as reflected in the Sahitya Akademi’s motto: "Indian literature is one though written in many languages." However, this perspective has been challenged by scholars who argue that the linguistic and literary diversity of India justifies referring to Indian literatures in the plural.

Dev critiques the notion of unity in diversity, suggesting that it risks overshadowing the uniqueness of individual literary traditions. He introduces the idea of hegemonic apprehensions, where the push for unity may inadvertently impose dominance over diverse literatures. Many writers and readers are primarily engaged with their own linguistic and literary traditions, reinforcing the argument for plurality.

Ultimately, Dev reframes the debate by proposing a revised interpretation of the Akademi’s motto: "Indian literature is one because it is written in many languages." This perspective acknowledges both the interconnectedness and the distinctiveness of Indian literary traditions, positioning comparative literature as the key to understanding India’s literary landscape.

Dev mentions Gurbhagat Singh who has been discussing the notion of "differential multilogue". He rejects the notion of Indian literature because the notion as such includes and promotes a nationalist identity. As a relativist, Singh accords literatures not only linguistic but also cultural singularities. With regard to the history of comparative literature as a discipline, he rejects both the French and the American schools as well as the idea of Goethe's Weltliteratur. His insistence on the plurality of logoi is particularly interesting because it takes us beyond the notion of dialogue, a notion that comparative literature is still confined to; enabling us to understand Indian diversity without sacrificing the individualities of the particulars.

Singh's concept of differential multilogue aligns with poststructuralist thought, which sees difference as a form of inclusion and mutuality rather than exclusion. Poststructuralism challenges fixed, singular categories and instead emphasizes fluid, dynamic relationships between elements. In this context, Singh deconstructs the idea of Indian literature as a singular entity, arguing that it is a politically constructed category rather than an organic literary reality.

He suggests that the resistance to the idea of Indian literature arises because it has been forcefully promoted as a national identity, rather than naturally emerging from the diverse literary traditions of the country. If individual literatures had been allowed to exist independently without being subsumed under the overarching idea of Indian literature, there would be no need for opposition to the unity-in-diversity framework. Thus, Singh’s perspective invites a reconsideration of how we define and categorize literature in India, advocating for a more decentralized and inclusive understanding that respects the uniqueness of each literary tradition.

Jaidav develops an argument for this cultural differential approach. Jaidev's notion of an Indian sensus communis is instances of "national" and racial image formations which suggest homogeneity and result in cultural stereotyping. The concept of an Indian sensus communis in the context of Singh's differential multilogue or Jaidev's differential approach brings me to the question of situs and theory. That is, the "site" or "location" of theory and of the theorist are important factors. If situs means cultural and linguistic rootedness then the notion of commonality is applicable.

Jaidev's concept of oneness provides an ambience for particular concerns with regard to cultural and artistic expression such as the case of language overlaps, the bi- and multilinguality of authors and their readership, openness to different genres, the sharing of themes based in similar social and historical experiences, emphasis on the oral and performing modes of cultural and artistic transmission, and the ease of inter-translatability. On the other hand, Jaidev suggests these characteristics of Indian cultural commonalities are rooted in a situs of the premodern age of Indian literatures.

Aijaz Ahmad's In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures describes the construct of a "syndicated" Indian literature that suggests an aggregate and unsatisfactory categorization of Indian literature. Ahmad argues the notion of "European literature" is at best an umbrella designation and at worst a pedagogical imposition while Indian literature is classifiable and categorizable.

Further, he argues that while European and African literatures have some historical signifiers in addition to their geographical designation, these are recent concepts whereas Indian homogeneity has the weight of tradition behind it. In Ahmad's argumentation, the problem is that in the "Indian" archive of literature, Indianness ultimately proves limited when compared with the differential literature comprising each of the twenty-two literatures recognized by the Sahitya Akademi.An "Indian" archive of literature as represented by an "English" archive -- while non-hegemonic on the one hand by removal from a differential archive but hegemonizing by a latent colonial attitude on the other – also reflects the official language policy of the government: English, while not included in the Indian Constitution, is still recognized as a lingua franca of government, education, etc.

V.K. Gokak and Sujit Mukherjee talked about an Indo-English collection of literature, which consists of major Indian texts translated into English.

Ahmad is concerned about the dominance of English but does not advocate for its complete removal, unlike Ngugi wa Thiong’o. In India, the idea of having one common language has been reinforced by political and ideological forces. Hindi is the official national language, and if all regional literary texts were translated into Hindi, it could create a unified Indian literature. However, this would again lead to the dominance of one language over others.

At the same time, English continues to be the most widely used language in higher education, as it is the main language of instruction in colleges and universities.

Swapan Majumdar, in his 1985 book Comparative Literature: Indian Dimensions, takes a systemic approach to Indian literature. He argues that Indian literature is neither a single unified entity, as nationalists claim, nor completely fragmented, as relativists and poststructuralists suggest. Instead, he sees it as a system where different literary traditions interact in a continuous and evolving way.

Sisir Kumar Das follows a similar approach in his ambitious ten-volume project, A History of Indian Literature. The first volume, 1800-1910: Western Impact / Indian Response, was published in 1991. His research highlights patterns of commonality among nineteenth-century Indian literatures. However, he does not claim that Indian literature is a single unified category. Instead, he aims to study whether such patterns exist across different historical periods.

Das’s findings suggest that Indian literature is neither completely unified nor entirely separate. Each historical period has its own literary trends, making it impossible to define Indian literature as a single, fixed entity.

The Gujarati poet Umashankar Joshi, who supported the idea of a unified Indian literature, was the first president of the Indian National Comparative Literature Association. The Kannada writer U.R. Anantha Murthy currently leads the Comparative Literature Association of India. Scholars of comparative literature often reflect the two opposing views on Indian literature—whether it is a single entity or a collection of diverse literatures. However, the Association also represents a shift towards a more balanced approach. Comparative Literature as a discipline helps in understanding Indian literature through both unity and diversity, viewing it as a dynamic and evolving interliterary process.

Dev highlights key aspects that support his idea of Indian literature as part of an interliterary process. He explains that we are rooted in our own languages, whether actively or passively bilingual, and often have access to one or two additional languages. Through translations within Indian languages, we gain access to even more texts, expanding our literary exposure. As readers, we naturally compare and relate texts from different languages with our first language literature. This process of inter-Indian reception shows that our primary literary perspective is shaped by our first language, but it is continuously influenced by other literatures through translation and multilingual engagement.

Conclusion

Amiya Dev concludes by reassuring readers, scholars, and students that the debate on unity and diversity in literature is not unique to India. He emphasizes that every nation faces similar challenges in defining its literary identity. Through Comparative Literature, we learn that comparisons should not be taken at face value and that literary theories cannot always be applied universally. Instead of imposing external frameworks, Dev suggests that we should first focus on understanding our own literary traditions and interliterary processes. By fully shaping our own Comparative Literature, we can later contribute to a broader, more inclusive understanding of literary diversity on a global scale.

Key points of the Article:

1. The Fundamental Problem of Unity vs. Diversity:

India's linguistic diversity is reflected in over 1,600 recorded languages, with 22 major literary languages officially recognized. This creates a fundamental tension between two perspectives in Indian literary discourse. The unity approach promotes the idea that "Indian literature is one though written in many languages," emphasizing a unified cultural and literary identity. In contrast, the diversity approach argues for recognizing multiple distinct literatures, acknowledging the unique characteristics and traditions of each language's literary output.

2. Poststructuralist Critique:

The poststructuralist perspective, championed by scholars like Gurbhagat Singh, presents a comprehensive critique of unified Indian literature. This critique warns against the dangers of nationalist identity construction through literary unification and highlights the risks of cultural hegemony. Poststructuralists are particularly concerned about power centralization that might result from such unification. Their proposed solution, the "differential multilogue" approach, aims to celebrate diversity while enabling meaningful dialogue between different literary traditions without forcing uniformity.

3. The English Archive Problem:

The use of English as an intermediary language in Indian literary translation has created significant complications. This practice has led to the creation of an "Indo-English corpus" that poses several challenges to Indian literary identity. The English archive risks creating a hegemonizing situation where English becomes the dominant medium, potentially oversimplifying the complexity of Indian literatures. Furthermore, this approach perpetuates colonial influences and may distort the authentic representation of various Indian literary traditions.

4. The Interliterary Process:

Dev's proposed concept of Indian literature as an "interliterary condition" offers a nuanced understanding of the literary landscape. This approach recognizes the historical interconnections between various Indian literatures while respecting their individual identities. It views literature as a dynamic, ongoing process rather than a fixed category, allowing for the study of commonalities without forcing homogenization. The interliterary perspective acknowledges the continuous interaction and mutual influence between different Indian literary traditions while maintaining their distinct characteristics.

5. Methodological Approaches:

The study of Indian literature has been enriched by various methodological frameworks. Sisir Kumar Das's historical approach involves creating comprehensive chronologies across languages, providing a temporal understanding of literary developments. K.M. George's comparative approach focuses on studying genres across different Indian literatures, offering insights into shared literary forms and traditions. Both these approaches emphasize the importance of "situs" (location) in studying Indian literature, recognizing that the cultural context significantly influences literary interpretation and understanding.

 ARTICLE 3

COMPARATIVE LITERATURE IN INDIA: 

An Overview of its History

Subha Chakraborty Dasgupta

Abstract 

Comparative Literature in India has an interesting origin story that centers around two major universities. It all started at Jadavpur University, which established the first department of Comparative Literature in the country. The department was built on the foundation of Rabindranath Tagore's influential speech about "World Literature" - where he talked about how different literatures of the world connect and interact. The department was founded by Buddhadeva Bose, who was both a modern poet and a translator. His background was perfect for this role because he understood how different literary traditions could speak to each other across languages and cultures. Later, the field grew in a new direction when the Department of Modern Indian Languages and Literary Studies was established at Delhi University. While Jadavpur had focused on connecting Indian literature with world literature, Delhi University took a different approach. They concentrated on studying the relationships between different Indian languages and their literary traditions. This was important because India has many languages and rich literary traditions in each of them. Together, these two universities shaped how Comparative Literature developed in India - Jadavpur looking outward to world literature, and Delhi looking inward at India's diverse literary landscape. This combination helped create a unique approach to studying literature that could bridge both Indian and global literary traditions.

The Early Phase:

When Comparative Literature began in India, it was heavily influenced by British approaches to studying literature, which was natural given India's colonial history. However, even in these early years, scholars were quietly working to break free from colonial perspectives and develop their own ways of studying literature. They particularly focused on encouraging creative thinking and new approaches.

The Shift in Focus:

Over time, there was a major change in what was being studied. Indian literature started getting more attention, and scholars began looking at literature from other countries in the Global South (like Africa, Latin America, and Asia). This was an important shift away from just studying Western literature.

Changes in Approach:

The way scholars studied literature also changed significantly:

- They moved away from just looking at how one literature influenced another

- Instead of just finding similarities between different literatures

- They began studying how different cultures interact through literature

- They focused on how different societies receive and transform literary works

Recent Developments:

In recent years, Comparative Literature has broadened even further:

- It now engages with various aspects of culture and knowledge

- There's special attention given to marginalized voices and communities

- Scholars are working to discover literary connections that don't follow traditional hierarchies

- This means looking at relationships between literatures as equal partnerships rather than one being more important than another

This evolution shows how Indian Comparative Literature has grown from its colonial roots into a field that celebrates diversity and equality in literary studies, while giving voice to previously overlooked literary traditions.

The Beginnings

The concept of world literature gained momentum towards the end of the nineteenth century. In Bengal, for instance, translation activities were undertaken on a large scale, and poets sought connections with global literary traditions to foster what the eminent poet-translator Satyendranath Dutta described in 1904 as "relationships of joy."

Rabindranath Tagore's lecture, Visvasahitya (meaning "world literature"), delivered at the National Council of Education in 1907, laid the foundation for the establishment of the Department of Comparative Literature at Jadavpur University in 1956—the same year the university began operations. A group of intellectuals sought to develop an indigenous education system distinct from the prevailing British model, one that catered to the needs of the people.

The idea of visvasahitya was complex, embodying a sense of a global artistic community collectively constructing the edifice of world literature. Literature, in this vision, was deeply rooted in human relationships, with aesthetics closely tied to human experience. However, Buddhadeva Bose, a leading figure in modern Bengali poetry, did not entirely embrace Tagore's idealist vision. He believed that breaking away from Tagore’s influence was essential for engaging with modernity.

Bose’s translation of Les Fleurs du Mal signaled his intent to shift focus towards French poetry and away from British literature, which represented the colonial masters. He also played a crucial role in bringing the significant modern poet Sudhindranath Dutta—renowned for his translation of Mallarmé and his deep knowledge of both Indian and Western literary traditions—to teach in the Department of Comparative Literature.

Despite efforts to move towards decolonization, the colonial framework remained evident in the pedagogical structure, with English literature occupying a significant place. The curriculum was organized around major European literary periods, such as the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, Romanticism, and Modernism. At the same time, substantial attention was given to Sanskrit and Bengali literature. It was within this structure that the epistemology of comparison emerged.

While this project did not create an entirely new subject of knowledge, as Radhakrishnan (458) pointed out, it laid the groundwork for an ongoing engagement with the dynamics of self and other. This approach led to an evolving discourse on comparative relationships, culminating in the launch of The Jadavpur Journal of Comparative Literature in 1961, which became a significant publication in the field of literary studies in India.

 Indian Literature as Comparative Literature

During the 1970s, new pedagogical perspectives began shaping Comparative Literature studies at Jadavpur University. Indian literature gained a more prominent place in the syllabus, not as an assertion of national identity, but as a natural progression in the study of texts within interconnected networks of relations. The focus extended beyond canonical texts to include histories shared across contiguous spaces, highlighting differences as well as commonalities.

The Department of Modern Indian Languages at Delhi University, established in 1962, introduced a post-MA course titled Comparative Indian Literature in 1974. This shift in focus led to a questioning of universalist canons, which had been a part of comparative studies in India from the outset. The inclusion of Indian literature—and, more broadly, literatures from the Global South—marked a move away from rigid canonical frameworks.

This new approach led to a broader definition of Indian literature, moving beyond the traditional emphasis on Sanskrit and a few canonical texts. Oral and performative traditions, which had often been overlooked, began receiving scholarly attention. Comparatists took on the challenge, as articulated by Aijaz Ahmad, of tracing the "dialectic of unity and difference"—through systematic periodization of linguistic interactions, historical material conditions, ideological struggles, class and community conceptions, gender discourses, and the interplay of oral and written traditions.

The study of Indian literary systems also acknowledged the diverse inter-cultural relations between Indian communities and their counterparts beyond national borders. 

Reconfiguring Areas of Comparison

The syllabus expanded to include texts such as Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude and works from Latin American and African literatures. These additions reflected a growing interest in questions of solidarity, resistance to oppression, and epistemological shifts resulting from colonial histories.

Area Studies courses covering African, Latin American, Canadian, and Bangladeshi literatures were introduced. While Canadian Studies gained initial prominence due to a research grant, the focus gradually expanded to include oral traditions within the broader framework of comparative studies.

With the introduction of the semester system, course structures were revised. General courses such as Cross-cultural Literary Transactions included comparisons like Rudyard Kipling’s Kim and Rabindranath Tagore’s Gora. Other courses, titled Literary Transactions, examined traditions of reason and rationalism in European and Indian literatures of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Research Directions

Several books and translations emerged from these projects. The Department of English and Comparative Literary Studies at Saurashtra University, Rajkot, explored themes of the Indian Renaissance, translating significant Indian authors into English, studying early travelogues from Western India to England, and publishing collections of theoretical discourse from the nineteenth century.

The Department of Assamese at Dibrugarh University received grants to publish translations, collect rare texts, and document folk traditions.

The Department of Comparative Literature at Jadavpur University also received support to advance research in four key areas: East-West Literary Relations, Indian Literature, Translation Studies, and Third World Literature. In 2005, the department was elevated to the status of Centre for Advanced Studies, shifting research focus significantly towards oral traditions and methodologies for engaging with them.

A second major research area at the Centre for Advanced Studies involved literary relations between India and its neighboring countries—an area previously unexplored beyond well-known points of contact.

Interface with Translation Studies and Cultural Studies

By the 21st century, Comparative Literature in India began intersecting with two related fields: Translation Studies and Cultural Studies. Many Comparative Literature programs incorporated courses on Translation Studies, acknowledging its role in interliterary studies. The histories of translation were used to map literary relations, while analysis of translation processes provided insight into both source and target literary and cultural systems.

Comparative Cultural Studies juxtaposed key global texts with related Indian texts. Additionally, new Comparative Literature centers in recently established universities incorporated diaspora studies as an area of focus. Despite a growing interdisciplinary approach, literature remained central to the discipline, with an increasing integration of intermedial studies.

Non-Hierarchical Connectivity

Comparative Literature in India today pursues diverse goals aligned with historical needs at both local and global levels. The discipline fosters civilizational exchanges against divisive forces that undermine human potential.

New links and non-hierarchical networks of literary connectivity, as Kumkum Sangari describes as “co-construction,” are anchored in “subtle and complex histories of translation, circulation, and extraction.”

While much remains to be done, the discipline continues to evolve, focusing on the construction of literary histories based on regional and global literary relations. The foundational aim of early pioneers—to nurture and foster creativity—remains a driving force beneath these scholarly endeavors.

Conclusion

Comparative Literature has embraced new perspectives, engaging with marginalized cultural spaces while fostering non-hierarchical literary relations. The discipline continues to evolve, integrating new areas of inquiry while maintaining its commitment to literary studies.

Major points:

The Beginnings

The concept of world literature gained prominence in the late 19th century, particularly in Bengal, where translation activities flourished. Rabindranath Tagore’s 1907 lecture Visvasahitya laid the foundation for Comparative Literature studies in India.

Jadavpur University established the Department of Comparative Literature in 1956 to develop an indigenous education system distinct from British colonial influence. The idea of visvasahitya emphasized a global literary community, but Buddhadeva Bose advocated a break from Tagore’s idealism to engage with modernity. Despite decolonization efforts, English literature and European literary periods remained central to the curriculum. The Jadavpur Journal of Comparative Literature (1961) became a key publication in Indian literary studies.

Indian Literature as Comparative Literature

The 1970s saw Indian literature integrated into the syllabus, focusing on shared histories and interrelations rather than national identity. Delhi University’s Department of Modern Indian Languages introduced Comparative Indian Literature in 1974. Traditional definitions of Indian literature, centered on Sanskrit and canonical texts, expanded to include oral and performative traditions. Aijaz Ahmad emphasized studying literature through historical material conditions, ideological struggles, and linguistic overlaps.

Research Directions

Universities like Saurashtra and Dibrugarh engaged in translation projects, documentation of folk forms, and studies of early travelogues. Jadavpur University’s Comparative Literature department received support for research in East-West Literary Relations, Indian Literature, Translation Studies, and Third World Literature. In 2005, the department was designated a Centre for Advanced Studies, shifting focus toward oral traditions and India’s literary relations with neighboring countries.

Interface with Translation Studies and Cultural Studies

Translation Studies became integral to Comparative Literature, mapping literary relations and analyzing translation processes. Comparative Cultural Studies juxtaposed global texts with Indian counterparts. New Comparative Literature centers in Indian universities introduced diaspora studies while maintaining literature as the core focus .